Games can boost executive function skills that can be generalized towards academic tasks. This post includes how this can happen and 6 picks for older kids.
Read MoreThe Three Types of Spelling Errors
Spelling errors are errors, right? Does the type REALLY matter? Actually, a student’s writing sample can serve as authentic data, acting as a compass to help guide us in the right direction of instruction. When we look at students’ spelling errors, we are looking at valuable pieces of information — information that has the power to inform our instruction to improve their spelling.
Let’s take a look at each of the three types of spelling errors and the information we can take away from them.
Phonological errors
Phonological errors are made when not all sounds are identified in the word the student is attempting to spell. The student is not accurately matching the correct sounds (phonemes) to the correct letters (graphemes).
In some cases, students may struggle to say the correct sounds. For example, a child may say /f/ for /th/, and words like bath or teeth become baf and teef.
In an attempt to spell much, students may confuse the CH and SH digraphs, and instead write mush.
Another example of a phonological error is writing set instead of sent or sip instead of skip, when students are not able to hear all of the sounds in the word.
When phonological errors occur, we need to focus more on phonemic and phonological awareness. We need to give segmenting and blending some more practice. We may also need to put our writers in front of mirrors to show how their mouths move when articulating each phoneme.
Orthographic errors
Orthographic errors are made when incorrect spelling patterns are used to map the sounds, but they are somewhat logical errors. They are not the result of misheard sounds. These errors may happen because the student hasn’t yet acquired the knowledge of specific spelling generalizations, or doesn’t have mastery of the specific phoneme-grapheme relationship for a specific sound they are trying to spell.
With these types of errors, a student may write klap for clap, not knowing that K and L are not blended together. (This is an example of why teaching blends can be helpful.) Other examples of orthographic errors include skool for school and kik for kick. Students who make these errors are able to hear and match each sound made with a grapheme (letter or letters), but may not have learned all of the spelling patterns for a particular sound and when to use which. Or maybe they have forgotten a specific generalization, such as when the /k/ sound immediately follows a short vowel in a single syllable word, the spelling is CK.
When orthographic errors occur, students benefit most from explicit instruction on spelling generalizations, and putting that knowledge into place with cumulative practice.
Morphological ERRORS
Morphological errors occur when the spelling error is with inflectional and derivational endings. These errors indicate the need to focus on how these endings connect with meaning.
An example of a morphological spelling error is spelling catz instead of cats. Students know they want to convey that there is more than one cat, but they hear /z/, and therefore spell the word with a Z.
In this scenario, students can be taught that the letter S is a plural suffix which can sound like either /s/ or /z/, but that when students are conveying that a noun is plural — more than one — it will always be S. To expand on this suffix, the different plural endings can be taught — S, ES, and IES.
The same is true for an error such as washt for washed. The past tense is intended here, but students may not have yet been explicitly taught that whether the ending sound is /id/, /d/, or /t/, it is always spelled ED.
Other examples of morphological spelling errors include helpfull for helpful and vacashun for vacation.
When morphological errors occur, students are ready for explicit instruction on the different suffixes.
When we use our students’ writing samples to inform our instruction, we are using authentic data to drive instruction. When we can break down the types of errors our students are making, we can address the gaps quicker.
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Cursive: Vital or Obsolete?
A little cursive history
Cursive — an art, a skill, a necessary piece of knowledge…or is it obsolete? Once upon a time, it was expected that all students would acquire the skills to write and read cursive. It was the norm. The history of learning cursive dates back to when the quill was the only writing implement available. Quills are fragile, and cursive allowed for steady hand movements that protected the quill by not having to be lifted on and off the paper frequently. Aside from preserving the quill, ink would splatter more readily causing a mess. In 1827 the quill was slowly phased out with the invention and patent of the fountain pen — less fragile than a quill, but still having the potential to cause an inky mess. Later in the 19th century, the first ballpoint pen received its patent. This was a game changer.
The ballpoint pen was a turning point because it allowed people to write quicker and more legibly without having to continuously dip their pens in ink. This was especially important for students taking notes. Cursive remained a speedier and more formal handwriting method. However, while cursive was still a much more efficient way to produce letters, ballpoint pens didn’t require the speed of cursive writing, and it slowly began to fall out of favor.
the present day
At some point, an idea developed that children should start out their formal education by forming letters the way they read them in books. They could learn cursive later on, after block print had been established. We have now turned a corner with the access nearly all students have to word processing devices. Many schools have done away with cursive, moving students to the keyboard. But are these students missing out on an important skill?
In her extensively researched book (affiliate link) The Two-Digit Revolution, Celia Batan explores the ways in which cursive influences brain development and learning. She writes, “It shapes the executive functions of the brain for successful academic performance while enhancing creative and critical thinking practices required for meaningful interpretations of what we see.” She also points out some other problems cursive solve that may persist for students such as letter reversal and improper spacing.
one skill, different impacts
The year I taught in a third grade classroom I worked with a teacher who created cursive licenses for students as they completed a cursive program that culminated in a cursive test. The license was almost like a replica of a drivers license, complete with each student’s picture and signature. After it was laminated, students proudly put their cursive licenses in their wallets, right next to their bus passes and MetroCards. (We lived in New York City.) That license was a third grade rite of passage. For many students, cursive was a confidence builder. It gave them another skill they could feel proud of. But there were several students for whom cursive had an even greater impact.
Student #1: The Student with Illegible Handwriting
One of my students struggled immensely with his fine motor skills. His handwriting was evidence. Poor letter formation, letters too large for the lines, and improper spacing, all of which made his writing look illegible. Worst of all, he was embarrassed because he often struggled to read his own writing, and so did others. Handwriting was physically challenging for him even after years of occupational therapy. He dreaded the idea of learning cursive. Instead, he was in for quite the pleasant surprise. Cursive was not only easier, but his handwriting became more legible. And he enjoyed it. Having a swift and constant flow without having to repeatedly lift up his pencil made things a whole lot easier. This wasn’t the case for every student, but it made a difference for this boy.
Student #2: The Artist
Cursive is not just a means of communication. It’s a form of art. Many may not agree, but one of my very artistic students sure did! She saw this newfound skill as a way to enhance her art work.
Student #3: The Budding Historian
Over a school break, one of my students and his family went to Washington, DC. When he returned, he couldn’t stop raving about his trip and all of the sites and museums he visited. The highlight of it all? When he exclaimed, “I learned cursive just in time to read some old letters in one of the museums, and a little bit of the Constitution!”
STUDENT #4: The Traveler
Cursive is required for something as mundane as singing your name on identification. Sure, you can teach a child how to write and connect only the letters in their name. But it’s a splinter skill. A skill that can only be used when signing one’s name. The student is not actually learning how to write in cursive — how to form and connect letters, and to read what others write. One student was preparing for an international trip, and upon receiving her first passport, was thrilled to share that she was able to sign her name because “I just knew how to write the letters together!”
Student #5: The Pen Pal
Upon receiving her cursive license, a student was beaming from ear to ear. “You know, my grandmother will ONLY write me letters in cursive! Now, not only will I be able to read them, but I can write her back too!” The ability for this child to write and read in cursive, gave her membership to a special club in which she could bond with her grandmother in a way she had never been able to before.
Cursive enriched the lives of these students in important ways. While cursive was essential for practical reasons centuries ago, it is essential in different ways today. Do you teach or plan to teach cursive to a young learner?
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Implementing Explicit Vocabulary Instruction
A strong vocabulary (along with ample background knowledge) is one of the best predictors of reading comprehension success. Honing both receptive and expressive vocabulary is important, and there are many ways to do this. But first, let’s discuss some vocabulary terminology.
Receptive vocabulary is the vocabulary understood through listening and reading, whereas expressive vocabulary is the vocabulary one uses to express oneself when speaking or writing. It is not unusual for a student to have strong receptive vocabulary but weak expressive. They may understand what is said to and asked of them, but when it comes to using rich vocabulary to express themselves, they struggle. They get their points across, but by using more Tier 1 vocabulary rather than fluency with Tier 2 vocabulary — and Tier 3 as necessary. Building one’s expressive vocabulary is vital for helping students better articulate their thoughts and ideas, and boosting their confidence.
TIERED VOCABULARY
Tier 1 Vocabulary is familiar to most students. In other words, common knowledge. (Note: this may not be the case for EL students who may require additional Tier 1 vocab support.) These words are basic, high-frequency words. They are used in everyday conversations and typically require no direct instruction. (Examples: blue, animal, happy).
Tier 2 Vocabulary is more academic. These words are high frequency words, but they are more sophisticated. They may be found across curriculum and in content texts. These words can become part of our everyday lexicon with direct instruction and increased exposure. They are critical for becoming a more descriptive speaker, knowledgeable listener, and proficient reader and writer. (Examples: navigate, surface, exhilarating)
Tier 3 Vocabulary pertains to very specific academic domains. They are words that are generally not used in everyday conversation unless discussing a specific content area. (Examples: atom, photosynthesis, mitosis)
WAYS WE LEARN
Learning happens one of two ways: indirectly or directly. Indirect vocabulary exposure is vocabulary that students are exposed to in their environments. They become familiar with these words by overhearing those in their community use them, through daily conversations, or seeing them in print. Students may or may not become receptively and expressively proficient in vocabulary through indirect exposure; however, it is through direct instruction when students have a better chance of gaining proficiency in both receptive and expressive knowledge of words, particularly at the Tier 2 and 3 levels. Direct instruction of vocabulary relies on an intentional focus of explicitly teaching language. One of the best ways to facilitate this direct instruction is through structured word inquiry, a powerful and effective way to investigate words through etymology, morphology, and phonology. When a word is taken apart, and all aspects of the word are dissected, meaning — and spelling! — are better retained. .
STEPS TO ACQUIRE NEW VOCABULARY
When new or unfamiliar words are introduced to students, consider an explicit step-by-step process such as the one below to support students in building their vocabularies for long-term retention.
Say the word. Have students repeat the word. Say each sound / syllable in the word clearly.
Write the word so that students can see how it is spelled. Say the word again.
Ask if students have heard this word before. If so, how have they heard it used?
Ask students to write the word. Address any spelling patterns that seem relevant for discussion with your students. Point out morphemes and roots or bases.
If applicable, show a picture of or relating to this word.
Does this word have more than one meaning? If so, what are the different meanings or associations?
Give a student-friendly definition.
Use it in context more than once.
Ask students to use the word in a sentence. Ask them to read their sentences to a partner.
Allow time for students to illustrate the word.
When we take sequential steps to directly teach vocabulary, students start thinking more about the words they come across. They become better able to comprehend texts, and more proficient at articulating their thoughts and ideas by utilizing just the right words. They will present themselves as more interesting, descriptive and articulate.
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